I have difficulty understanding the solution below and have already summarized my difficulties as follows,
- why "the area of the polygon $abcelef$
…. represents the number of ways the three points can be taken, so that the circle circumscribing the triangle will lie wholly within the given polygon." It looks like the ratio of the two areas is the probability that a circle with a given radius lying wholly in the polygon. - "An element of the polygon at $G$ is $4 x d x d \psi$", what does the "element" mean? a differential form? and why is it $4 x d x d \psi$;
- why is an element of the polygon at $R$ $dt$?
- why is $dt$ only a differential form of $d\theta$? why not include $dx$ too?
- why do we introduce an imaginary angle $\phi$?
Problem:
A circle is circumscribed about a triangle formed by joining three points taken at random in the surface of a circumscriptible polygon of $n$ sides, find the chance that the circle lies wholly within the polygon.
Solution:
Let $ABCDEF\ldots$ be the polygon, $PGR$ the triangle formed by joining the three random points $P$, $G$ and $R$, $O$ the center of the entirely circumscribing $PGR$ (which I think is a typo, should be $M$ rather than $O$). Draw the polygon $abcef$…, making its sides parallel to those of the given polygon, and at a distance from them equal to $MP$, and draw $ONS$ and $MH$ perpendicular to $AB$ and $PG$. Check the figure below
Now while $PG$ is given in length and direction, and $\angle PRG$ is given, if $MP$ is less than the radius of the inscribed circle of the given polygon, the area of the polygon $abcelef\ldots$ represents the number of ways the three points can be taken, so that the circle circumscribing the triangle will lie wholly within the given polygon.
Let $PG =2x$, $OS =r$, perimeter of $ABCDEF\ldots$ $=s$, area of segment $PRG$ $=t$, area of sector $PMG$ $=v$, area of triangle $PMG$ $=u$, area of polygon $ABCDEF\ldots$ $= \Delta$, $\angle PMH = \theta$, $\phi=\sin ^{-1}(\frac{x}{r})$, and $\psi=$ the angle which $PG$ makes with some fixed line.
Then we have $PM = x \csc \theta$, $ON = r – x \csc \theta$, area $abcdef \ldots$ $=(r – x \csc \theta)^{2} \frac{\Delta}{r^{2}}$, $v = \theta x^{2} \csc^{2} \theta$, $u = x^{2} \cot \theta$, $t=v-u$, and $dt = dv – du = 2 x^{2} \csc^{2} \theta(1 – \theta \cot \theta) d \theta$.
An element of the polygon at $G$ is $4 x d x d \psi$, or $4 r^{2} \sin \phi \cos \phi d \phi d \psi$, and at $R$ it is $dt$. The limits of $x$ are $0$ and $r$; of $\phi$, $0$ and $\frac{1}{2} \pi$; of $\theta, \phi$ and $\pi – \phi$; and of $\psi$, $0$ and $2 \pi$.
Hence, doubling, since $R$ may lie on either side of $PG$, wo have for the required chance,
\begin{align*}
p &=\frac{2}{\Delta^3} \int_0^r 4 x d x \int_{\theta=\phi}^{\theta=\pi-\phi} d t \int_0^{2 \pi} d \psi(r-x \csc \theta)^2 \frac{\Delta}{r^2}\\
&=\frac{16 \pi}{r^{2}\Delta^2} \int_0^r x d x \int_{\theta=\phi}^{\theta=\pi-\phi} d t(r-x \csc \theta)^2\\
&= \frac{32 \pi}{r^2 \Delta^2} \int_0^r x^3 d x \int_\phi^{\pi-\phi}(r – x \csc\theta)^{2}(1 – \theta \cot \theta) \csc^2 \theta d\theta\\
&= \frac{2 \pi r^{4}}{3 \Delta^2} \int_0^{\frac{1}{2}\pi} [2(\pi-2 \phi) \sin 2 \phi+4-4 \cos 4 \phi-3 \sin ^2 2 \phi \cos 2 \phi+64 \sin^{4} \phi \cos \phi \log \tan \frac{1}{2} \phi] d \phi\\
&= \frac{2 \pi^2 r^{4}}{5 \Delta^2}\\
&=\frac{8 \pi^2 r^2}{5 s^2} \\
\end{align*}
Remarks
If $ABCDEF \ldots$ is a circle, $s = 2\pi r$, so $p = 2/5$, and the problem is from the book "Inside Interesting Integrals" written by Prof. Paul J, Nahin, which is stated as follows,
Imagine a circle (let’s call it $C_{1}$) that has radius $a$. We then chose at random (i.e., uniformly distributed) and independently, three points from the interior of that circle. These three points, if non-collinear, uniquely determine another circle, $C_{2}$. $C_{2}$ may or may not be totally contained within $C_{1}$. What is the probability that $C_{2}$ lies totally inside $C_{1}$? See the answer
Best Answer
Below I am trying to make the asked points clear, computations do not stay in focus. First of all a picture:
The problem starts somehow with the middle, making the least number of words in a random language count for exposing the problem. This is not the way we think, and not the way we start solving. Instead, let us introduce the objects in their order.
To the questions:
1. The area of the polygon $\Xi = abcdef\dots$ represents strictly speaking the integral over $\Xi=\Xi(x,\theta)$ w.r.t. $dM$, so it takes from the initial integral w.r.t. $dP\; dR\; dG$ a part $dM$, where $dM$ is replacing inside of a parametrization the $dP$. This is all only "lyrics", but the steps above show some details.
2. The "volume" or rather "area element" is $dG$, and after the parametrization of $G$ as $P+2x(\cos \psi,\sin\psi)$ we have $dP\wedge dG=dP\wedge 4x\; dx\; d\psi$. So in the presence of $dP$ (and $dR$) the change of variables from $G$ to $(x,\psi)$ feels like passing to polar coordinates. We formally replace $dG$ from the whole integral.
3. It is again a matter of reparametrizing $R$ in terms of $\theta,t$ with the meanings defined by the text. Then $dR$ is expressed in a specific manner in terms of $d\theta\; dt$ (times a Jacobian factor).
4. Including $dx$ would not change things, since we compute something like $dx\wedge dR$, and $dx\wedge ?$-two-forms obtained after rephrasing $dR$ are cancelled. Or put it in another way. We apply Fubini, and split the set of good cases $Z$ w.r.t. $x$, so for each $x$ we have a set $Z_x$ to further integrate the remained parameters.
5. The angle $\phi$ controls the range for $\theta$, so that the resulted $PM$, radius of the circle $\odot(M)=\odot(PRG)$ does not exceed one. It is used only as a function of $x$ in a tacit manner, making $\theta$ run only between $\phi$ and $\pi\phi$, i.e. $PM=\frac x{\sin\theta}=\frac {\sin\phi }{\sin\theta}\le 1$.