I see this word a lot when I read about mathematics. Is this meant to be another way of saying "obvious" or "easy"? What if it's actually wrong? It's like when I see "the rest is left as an exercise to the reader", it feels like a bit of a cop-out. What does this all really mean in the math communities?
Mathematical Terminology – What Does ‘Trivial’ Really Mean?
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I interpret the question as "how do I know how to attack a Diophantine problem". The question is in fact not easy and it is this skill that algebraic number theorists hone. Moreover, the methods that you listed are where the story was about 300 years ago. Today, there are more sophisticated and more general techniques available. If you are more interested in the motivation, you should have a look at this MO question, which somewhat goes in your direction.
Before I start listing the modern methods, let me directly address your questions "what is behind a given equation" and "how do I know what to try?", starting with the latter: you don't. After a while you develop some intuition, but still, the basic way to find an approach that works is to try them all out in the order of decreasing likelihood of success. It is this likelihood that you can estimate better and better, as you become more proficient, but you will never know for sure, until you try an approach. As for the question "what is behind a Diophantine equation", there is no good way of making sense of this question at present. Some people will view the equation as describing a geometric object (see last paragraph of this post), some people will look at it from a "modular angle" (see penultimate paragraph). But at the end of the day, when you are interested in integral or rational solutions, the equation is just that: a Diophantine equation. If you must categorise equations, then to categorise them according to the geometry and topology of the set of complex solutions is probably the most sensible thing to do (see last paragraph).
There are two or three rather broad themes in modern research, where modern means everything from the last 150-odd years.
First, a classical method that you have hinted at but that has much more potential is that often, to understand integer solutions, you are forced to work in a bigger ring. You have listed square roots of integers, but the technique is more general than that. To master it, you need to learn some classical algebraic number theory, as it was developed at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century and that's also where I would recommend you to start reading. Have a look at an introductory book into algebraic number theory, such as the book by Ian Stewart, which I personally quite like.
Another broad theme is the one successfully used by Ribet, Frey, Wiles and several others along the way to prove Fermat's Last Theorem. It is nowadays subsumed under the mysterious bracketing term "modularity". To start understanding, what this is about, you first need to learn about modular forms and elliptic curves. The basic idea is that the Shimura-Tanyiama-Weil conjecture, which was the actual result Wiles proved, relates two seemingly unrelated objects: rational elliptic curves and modular forms. This is extremely useful, because modular forms are extremely well-behaved. The "modularity"-idea of solving Diophantine equations then is to construct an elliptic curve out of a putative solution to your given equation that has such strange properties that it cannot possibly be modular. That would then contradict Wiles's theorem, so there cannot be such a solution. The places to start reading about elliptic curves and modular forms are (after you have completely read an introductory book on algebraic number theory and done all the exercises) Silverman - the classic on elliptic curves, and maybe the book by Diamond and Schurman for modular forms.
Finally, a very broad theme is that often, the geometry or the topology of the complex solutions of the equation controls its arithmetic (i.e. Diophantine) behaviour. It is difficult to point to one place where to learn about this, but elliptic curves are definitely the right point to start. I think, once you have read a book on algebraic number theory and one on elliptic curves, you should just come back here and ask this question again with your new background.
In math, there's intuition and there's rigor. Saying $$f'(x)=\lim_{h\to0}\frac{f(x+h)-f(x)}h$$ is a rigorous statement. It's very formal. Saying "the derivative is the instantaneous rate of change" is intuitive. It has no formal meaning whatsovever. Many people find it helpful for informing their gut feelings about derivatives.
(Edit I should not understate the importance of gut feelings. You'll need to trust your gut if you ever want to prove hard things.)
That being said, here's no reason why you should find it helpful. If it's too fluffy to be useful for you that's fine. But you'll need some intuition on what derivatives are supposed to be describing. I like to think of it as "if I squinted my eyes so hard that $f$ became linear near some point, then $f$ would look like $f'$ near that point." Find something that works for you.
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It is true that the meaning of trivial varies as the complexity of the subject increases, or when the area of expertise of the writer is not yours. I find some stuff trivial, which might not be trivial for another person. Even with expert mathematicians, something might be trivial for a number theorist which might not really be trivial for a topologist, for example.
When you find trivial in a book it usually means: "This should be rather easy to see for anyone that has got this far into the theory", or "I think this is easy to see and I don't want to waste my time in proving it", among others. I really suggest you take a look at JM's link, since it has great answers and it is almost the same situation.