It's not that $\mathcal{F}_t$ itself "contains information about the process up to time $t$" in the way you seem to be assuming. Rather, elements of $\mathcal{F}_t$ are allowed to depend on information about the process up to time $t$. For instance, in your example, the set $\{ttt,tth,tht,thh\}$ has some very useful information about the first toss: it tells us that the first toss was tails!
To put it another way, $\mathcal{F}_t$ should be thought of as the set of all events which depend only on what has happened up to time $t$. So in your example, one of the events in $\mathcal{F}_1$ is that the first coin toss was tails, represented by the set $\{ttt,tth,tht,thh\}$. Another event in $\mathcal{F}_1$ is that the first coin toss was heads, represented by the set $\{hhh,hht,hth,htt\}$.
Now, if $X$ is a random variable, to say that $X$ is $\mathcal{F}_t$ measurable means that every event we can define in terms of $X$ is in $\mathcal{F}_t$ (more precisely, for any Borel set $A$, $\{\omega:X(\omega)\in A\}\in\mathcal{F}_t$). That is, the event of $X$ having any particular value (or any particular range of values) is in $\mathcal{F}_t$, meaning that this event depends only on what has happened up to time $t$. So, to say that $S_t$ is adapted to the filtration means exactly that any event regarding the value of $S_t$ only depends on what happens up to time $t$. In other words, the current price (at some time $t$) can't depend on what happens in the future.
I feel you might find this unsatisfying, and if you do, my response would be that you are simply misunderstanding the purpose of the notion of a process adapted to a filtration. This is just a technical definition for describing stochastic processes as a mathematical structure. It doesn't have any special powers and isn't going to magically answer any questions about stock prices. Treat it as just a definition and nothing more, and be patient until you see applications where the definition is useful.
Best Answer
Yes, $X$ is adapted to $(\mathcal{F}_t)_t$, because $\mathcal{F}^{Y}_t\subset \mathcal{F}_t$ necessarily for each $t$, otherwise $Y$ could not be adapted to $(\mathcal{F}_t)_t$.
(In general $(\mathcal{F}^Y_t)_t$ is known as the natural filtration of $Y$.)